by Dr Ragnar Purje
Carol Dweck (2006), in her research on growth mindset, highlights that rewarding effort without linking it to genuine achievement tends to diminish effort and commitment. Dweck’s findings underscore the importance of emphasising effort in conjunction with progress and achievement. When effort takes place and when students are praised for their effort (“I can see you have worked hard), students will be more likely to develop positive adaptive learning behaviours and embrace challenges. Plus, they will also tend to persist in the face of inevitable challenges, mistakes, and setbacks that will also take place.
The Absence of Gold Stars and Participation Certificates in Play
As soon as children begin to play, research in Play Theory informs that children have an inherent understanding of the value of effort and outcomes that take place in play. Play is self-motivated. Play exists and is enjoyed for its own sake. Extrinsic rewards and the concept of “gold stars” for everyone, or “participation certificates” do not exist in play. The only observers who interrupt the “universal profoundness of play” (and apply the concept and application of extrinsic “gold star rewards” for participation) are adults. When this adult-directed action takes place, “the profound universal power” (of what play is and what play achieves) no longer exists.
The Profound Universal Power of Play
According to Lev Vygotsky, the intrinsic motivation that takes place in play leads children to exert effort toward a goal. Their engagement in these activities begins to develop their understanding of effort and reward. Jean Piaget noted that children learn rules, strategies, and consequences through play.
Research undertaken by Angela Duckworth and Martin Seligman shows that play provides the means for children to develop determination, perseverance, and resilience as they repeatedly engage in all the challenges that always exist in play. Some challenges will be achieved. Others will not. The universal ethereal essence of what play is always remains in place.
The sense of accomplishment (following the universality of self-motivated effort-driven success), according to Duckworth and Seligman, continues to strengthen the intrinsic motivation of the participant.
When failure also inevitably takes place during play on this life continuum (of where effort equals success) and (where effort also leads to failure), both of these outcomes provide the participant with the universal knowledge that success and failure are integral aspects of the learning process of play, and life itself.
This potential developmental self-reflective understanding that is taking place during play reinforces the universal truth that self-motivated effort is the ignition and the driving force behind growth, improvement, and eventual potential mastery. While also recognising that mastery is never guaranteed.
Through the application of effort to achieve success, the participant experiences intrinsic validation, which adds to the understanding that personal motivation is what leads to outcomes being achieved.
At the same time, there is the added potential of learning and knowing that failure also offers the process of developing and advancing when intrinsic critical feedback is taking place. It is this developmental intrinsic thinking and knowledge that further adds to the development of resilience, the capacity for adaptation, and the ongoing development of problem-solving skills.
Ultimately, these dual play-based experiences (that of success and failure) empower the individual with the insight, and self-reflective understanding (that perseverance and continuous self-motivated effort) are the essential intrinsic learning ingredients for developing and advancing skills and knowledge and achieving ongoing progress in all aspects of life.
There are no participation certificates here. The only thing taking place is the universal truth that application leads to outcomes (which include success and failure). Both of these outcomes are universal truths learned by and through self-motivated effort.
Research by David Whitebread et al. informs that play aids children in developing deeper self-reflective thinking and enhancing their critical thinking abilities, including self-reflective insights like delayed gratification and the value of persistence.
Further to this, according to Whitebread et al., children who participate in any form of goal-directed play also learn to concentrate on tasks, solve problems, and adapt their strategies. These findings accentuate the importance of effort in achieving desired outcomes.
Theory of Mind research by David Premack and Guy Woodruff suggests that children develop a social awareness of others during play. According to Premack and Woodruff, when children observe and also engage with their peers, it is through this active cognitive and physical process (that they begin to gain further social insights and understandings). This cognitive development is what helps children to also recognise how different levels of effort lead to varying outcomes. This helps to shape their comprehension of fairness, justice, and the value of effort, competence, and merit-based achievements.
All of this indicates that play offers cognitive and affective benefits, and it also teaches children social rules regarding effort and fairness. According to Anthony Pellegrini (it is both competitive and cooperative play experiences) that help children understand how effort contributes to individual success as well as group (team) success.
In team games, children witness firsthand that it is those who contribute more effort and who continually engage, are the ones that bring benefit to the team (both collectively and personally). This outcome and insight reinforce the associated actuality of societal values dealing with fairness and justice.
All of this research is unambiguous. It provides strong evidence that children inherently comprehend the value of effort and outcomes from the moment they begin to play. As such, play is an essential and universal learning mechanism. It allows children to experiment with cause-and-effect relationships, develop perseverance, and understand social expectations regarding effort and achievement. These foundational lessons in play set the stage for constructive lifelong learning, motivation, and success.
Research undertaken by Jean Twenge and W. Keith Campbell (who explored narcissism and societal changes) revealed how excessive praise and the granting of unearned rewards contribute to the development of a mindset and an affective state marked by ostentatious entitlement behaviours.
Ostentatious Entitlement Behaviours
According to Joshua Grubbs and Julie Exline, ostentatious entitlement behaviours refer to conspicuous, exaggerated displays of entitlement where individuals believe they deserve special treatment, privileges, or rewards without corresponding effort, competence, or merit. These behaviours often manifest in arrogance, demands for unearned benefits, and disregard for social norms or the well-being of others.
Research by Emily Zitek and Alexander Jordan notes that individuals with high entitlement tendencies also often react negatively when their expectations are not met, exhibiting anger, blame-shifting, and resistance to constructive feedback. These behaviours are particularly evident in work, social, and educational settings (where entitled individuals demand special privileges while ignoring the rights and efforts of others).
Zitek and Jordan also inform that the presentation of entitlement behaviour is also linked to low resilience and a high external locus of control; meaning that entitled individuals tend to struggle with setbacks and also frequently blame external factors (instead of taking personal responsibility for their attitude, choices and actions.
Ostentatious Entitlement Behaviours in Education
From an educational perspective, Ellen Greenberg et al. suggest that entitled students often expect higher grades without putting in the necessary effort, resist academic challenges, and blame their teachers, peers (or any other circumstance) for their poor performance.
According to Greenberg et al., this penchant for blaming others tends to develop into a negative mindset and associated negative social behaviour (characterised by disengagement and diminished personal accountability), which the individual has chosen to adopt.
A Psychological Framework for Understanding Entitlement
Self-Determination Theory of Edward Deci and Richard Ryan provides a psychological framework for understanding the consequences on motivation. According to Deci and Ryan, intrinsic motivation (driven by personal interest, curiosity, and a desire to achieve mastery) is fundamental for sustained engagement and high performance to take place. However, when individuals are accustomed to seeking extrinsic rewards (praise, certificates, gold stars) without a corresponding effort, their intrinsic drive diminishes.
The Overjustification Effect
According to Deci and Ryan, this phenomenon is known as the “overjustification effect.” This occurs when external rewards undermine the intrinsic enjoyment and personal satisfaction derived from an activity instead of pursuing tasks for the inherent challenge or personal growth. This then diminishes the ability to cultivate self-discipline, personal growth, and self-improvement. When this occurs, a corresponding personal inclination may lead to disengagement, which usually (and inevitably) results in diminished performance outcomes.
The Consequences of Rewards Without Supporting Effort
Research conducted by Eddy Ng, Sean Lyons and Linda Schweitzer found that the long-term consequences of an indiscriminate culture of social and societal rewards extend beyond education and directly into the workforce and society.
Their research highlights a significant issue pertaining to who they describe as the “younger generation” (that were now entering the workforce) and who also may have been shaped by regularly receiving participation certificates or even trophies with its emphasis on unrewarded effort over merit. The research undertaken by Ng, Lyons, and Schweitzer found these “younger generation” individuals often lacked the mental and emotional capacities of perseverance and resilience.
Workplace Challenges
One of the key findings in their paper, New Generation, Great Expectations: A Field Study of the Millennial Generation, Ng, Lyons, and Schweitzer found employers commonly reported a trend among “these younger” employees that they struggled with commitment, perseverance, constructive criticism and challenges.
Many of these so-called “young generation professionals,” according to Ng, Lyons, and Schweitzer, seemed to believe they could rapidly advance in their careers without the long-term effort necessary to achieve mastery. Added to this, Ng, Lyons, and Schweitzer found that these “young generation employees” often became quickly disillusioned when inevitable difficulties took place or when immediate promotions and recognition did not take place. Neither did they appear to value feedback and constructive criticism.
Feedback and Constructive Criticism are Absolutely Necessary
Research on feedback and constructive criticism, as highlighted by Ng, Lyons, and Schweitzer, is universally essential across all disciplines and at every level of learning. However, the employers in their study observed that these “younger employees” often perceived constructive criticism and feedback as a personal attack rather than recognising feedback and constructive criticism as vital opportunities for learning and overall improvement in the development of skills and knowledge.
Impact on Motivation and Work Ethic
Ng, Lyons, and Schweitzer also noted that the “younger generation” employees often entered the workforce with unrealistic expectations regarding salaries and work-life balance. According to Ng, Lyons, and Schweitzer, this entitlement mindset created a disconnect between employer expectations and employee performance.
Societal Consequences
According to Ng, Lyons, and Schweitzer, the implications of this trend extend beyond the workplace and into society. Without perseverance, resilience, and the ability to handle criticism, individuals – will struggle – to contribute meaningfully to complex social and economic structures.
The study by Ng, Lyons, and Schweitzer also shows that a societal culture that indiscriminately rewards participation (rather than celebrating self-motivation, discipline, perseverance, determination, effort, resilience, and actual objective achievements) creates unrealistic psychological expectations (as the presenting evidence informs) leads to behaviours and circumstances that can only be described as being unrealistic and also professionally unbeneficial.
Environments That Emphasise Merit
In contrast to all of this, according to Carol Dweck, environments that emphasise merit, effort, perseverance, resilience, and achievement cultivate a growth mindset. In these environments, individuals see challenges as opportunities for learning rather than threats to their self-worth.
By reinforcing the connection between effort and outcomes, individuals (as the research indicates) are more likely to develop intrinsic motivation, self-discipline, and a genuine desire for the relentless pursuit of excellence (not just in their tasks), but also in what could be considered as life itself.
The research is clear: The practice of consistently giving “rewards” (that are not merit-based), ultimately undermines the development of commitment, persistence and resilience. To cultivate individuals capable of constantly dealing with and overcoming challenges (and achieving long-term success), it is crucial to emphasise meaningful achievement over indiscriminate recognition. Only through genuine effort and perseverance can individuals develop the resilience needed to navigate the ongoing challenges and complexities of life.
Dr Ragnar Purje is an Adjunct Senior Lecturer in the School of Education at CQUniversity, and the author of Responsibility Theory®. With the support of Professor Ken Purnell (Head of Neuroscience at CQU), Dr Purje presents lectures to preservice graduate teachers about Responsibility Theory®.